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An Etymological Dictionary of Chinese Characters
Interpretations by Lawrence J. Howell and Hikaru Morimoto |
| Covering 6,500 Chinese characters as used in Japan |
Word Family of Terms Originally Pronounced KANG
Semantic Values of the Sound KANG: Frame + Extension
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Some characters in this word family involve objects that are literal, rectangular frames. Examples include:
A mirror (鏡)
A mold (型)
A plow (耕)
Handcuffs (幸)
The -NG final emphasizes that the framing object is elongated, a theme evident in
A bar-like object that causes the body to stretch to balance it (央)
A long, meat-filled container (肯)
A castle or many-storied building (京)
Crossroads (行)
An expansive block of solid ice (凝)
A body that goes stiff (敬)
A subterranean watercourse (径)
A stem or stalk (茎)
Long, warp threads (経)
A vehicle that shuttles between two points (軽)
Related is the idea of two objects in distant opposition, such as
Diners across a banquet table (郷)
Sound across a distance (響)
Gas or air that passes through a window/fan and collects elsewhere (向)
Gates standing in opposition (享)
A fragrance that drifts from one point to another (香)
Among the non-Everyday Use Characters, we find the following examples:
Rectangular Frames
A tautly demarcated set of fields (畺)
A frame for straightening a bow (檠)
Cleanly demarcated rhizomes or bark (薑 and 橿)
A water plant, the stalk and flower of which cross at the waterline (荇)
A large bamboo box (籝)
Claw of a crab (螯)
A horizontally aligned jewel (珩)
Elongated Frames
A variant on 享, gates standing in opposition (亨)
A tall pile of soft food on a dish (盈)
A lidded, tripod vessel (鉶)
A long necklace of shells or precious stones (嬰, 瓔)
Swellings circling the neck like a necklace (癭)
Swelling of water (泱)
A tautly stretched bow (彊)
A tautly stretched rope (緪)
A leather strap connecting two pieces of equestrian equipment (鞅)
Connecting reins (韁)
A cord stretched tautly about an infant carried on one's back (襁)
A long stretch of water (瀛, 沆)
Birds aligned along a long stretch of water (鴴)
A long hole such as a mine shaft (阬)
An elongated throat (亢, 頸, 吭)
A long incision framed by the sides of the throat (剄)
A wooden stake thrust into the earth (杭)
A long, fortified border (疆)
A beam/girder (桁)
A seedling stretching skyward (秧)
A bird alighting straight down (頏)
Limbs being stretched in torture (殃)
A human standing tall (伉)
A pair of hands raised high (擎)
A stiff human figure (僵)
A long bone, the shin/legbone (脛)
The long, straight edge of a garment (絎)
Stripes on both sides of the head of a duck (鴦)
A wide-bellied pot (盎)
A row of suspended stones constituting a musical instrument (磬)
A long gorge connecting two distant points (陘)
Objects in Distant Opposition
Two separate pieces of land (亘)
The crescent moon moving to an opposite point in the sky (亙)
Set out to engage a distant army (嚮)
Diners across a banquet table (卿, 饗)
Strings hung from either side of a crown (纓)
Fragrance that wafts across a distance (馨)
A path that connects two distant points (逕)
Eyes regarding the sun (昂)
Two individuals of vastly different rank (卬)
Another variation on the theme of elongation is the temporal sense (a long time):
An apricot savored in the frame of the mouth (杏)
Soup simmered for a long time (羹)
A prolonged song coming to an end (竟)
A permanent mark on a criminal's face (黥)
Taut, unflagging strength (勁)
A previous day, long ago (曏)
Protracted spasms (痙)
A pupa or chrysalis, figuratively faced over time by the adult insect it becomes (蠁)
Extensions of meaning or abstract applications of the senses noted above are found in the remaining characters in this group.
仰 (6) ギョウ；あお（ぐ）；おお（せ）
As per 卬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (kneel and look up at → regard from a distance) + 人 person → kneel and regard a superior from a distance → look up at/to; respect; revere → depend on; another's commands/wishes. Also, take (poison/medicine) (← follow orders).
迎 (7) ゲイ；むか（える）
As per 卬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (kneel and look up at → regard from a distance) + 辵 movement → move toward another → go to meet → greet; welcome.
境 (14) キョウ；ケイ；さかい
As per 竟 (Type 1 Phonetic) (end point) + 土 earth → boundary (← land's end) → border; area; circumstance.
鏡 (19) キョウ；かがみ
As per 竟 (Type 1 Phonetic) (end point) + 金 metal → copper mirror polished to a point where it clearly reflects the boundary of light and dark (e.g., an object appears clearly when it is fully separated from a dark backdrop) → model; in the light of; consider; clear; lens; spectacles.
京 (8) キョウ；ケイ S/B  Alternate Form 亰
S/B is a pictograph of a castle or a many-storied building on a high place (compare the top element of 高), constructed on an elevated platform → high hill → metropolis; capital (← large settlement in sunny/bright heights, safe from both floods and surprise attacks).
景 (12) ケイ
As per 京 (Type 1 Phonetic) (high place) + 日 sun/day → expansive view from a high spot on a sunny day → scene.
影 (15) エイ；かげ
As per 景 (Type 1 Phonetic) (expansive view on a sunny day) + 彡 pattern → patterns created by sunlight (compare 映) → image; reflection; figure; trace; shape → shadow (← emphasis on the shaded rather than the light portion, the reverse being the case for light).
鯨 (19) ゲイ；くじら
As per 京 (Type 1 Phonetic) (expansive view → expansive) + 魚 fish → whale.
強 (11) キョウ；ゴウ；し（いる）；つよ（い・まる・める） BIS  SIS 
BIS combines a shape indicator suggesting the horned head of a beetle + 虫 insect → beetle. SIS adds 弓 (Type 8 Phonetic) bow, functioning as an abbreviated form of 彊 (tautly stretched bow), leading to the idea of strong. Returning to the SIS form, this referred to a hard-shelled beetle. In sum, 強 is 弓 (Type 1 Phonetic) + the right-hand element (beetle), so that ultimately the meanings strong, strength, and force are borrowed meanings → compel; coerce; intensify.
競 (20) キョウ；ケイ；きそ（う）；せ（る） SIS  Alternate Form 竸
SIS shows 言 (Type 2 Phonetic) words (doubled) + 人 person (doubled) → compete → auction.
行 (6) コウ；ギョウ；アン；い（く）；おこな（う）；ゆ（く） S/B 
S/B is a pictograph of a crossroads → go; movement; procession; road → line (of people) → conduct; do; perform (← carry out an action).
衡 (16) コウ
As per 行 (Type 1 Phonetic) (crossroads → straight road → straight) + 大 person standing outstretched + an abbreviated form of 角 horn → bar used to hold down the horns of cattle to prevent injury to humans (compare the original sense of 告) → scale; measure; weigh (← bar used in making measurements ← wooden bar).
坑 (7) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 土 earth → hole stretching deep into the ground → bury.
抗 (7) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 手 hand/action indicator → stretch out the hands in resistance or opposition → resist; oppose → rival; compete.
航 (10) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 舟 boat → boats sailing in grand alignment → sail; navigate; vessel.
央 (5) オウ
大 person standing outstretched + a bar-like object → stretch to balance the weight of a heavy object → center; middle (← pressure exerted upon the center of the body).
英 (8) エイ
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 艸 grass/plant → plant stretching at length → brilliance; superiority (← stand out from others ← stretch at length). England and English are via the phonetic construction 英吉利.
映 (9) エイ；うつ（す・る）；は（える） Alternate Form 暎
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 日 sun/day → sun shining over a wide area (compare 影) → reflection; projection (← patterns of darkness and light produced by the striking of sunlight upon an object) → shade; shape. Also, match/go with and be conspicuous (← reflect) → be attractive (← conspicuous).
郷 (11) キョウ； ゴウ Formerly 鄕
A variant and abbreviated form of 卿 (Type 8 Phonetic) (opposition) + 邑 village/settlement → villages facing each other at a distance → village; countryside → rural.
響 (20) キョウ；ひび（き・く） Formerly 
As per 鄕/郷 (Type 1 Phonetic) (villages facing each other at a distance) + 音 sound → transmission of sound through space from point of origin to point of reception → resonance; reverberation.
向 (6) コウ；む（かう・き・く・ける・こう） S/B 
S/B is 宀 roof/building + a hole → ventilation hole in the wall of a building → face (toward); head toward; direction. Extended meanings include confront; advance upon; approach; become/grow; turn to; point at; send (a messenger); (on) the other side; opposite direction and beyond. Also, position (on a matter) and be inclined to do (← the approach one takes to an issue); allocate to (← time/objects one directs toward a matter); destination (← head toward); the other party (← person one faces); and suitability (← be appropriately suited to face a situation). For the idea of being connected through intervening space (air/gas in a certain place that passes through a ventilation hole and collects elsewhere), compare 窓.
享 (8) キョウ S/B 
S/B is a pictograph of a castle or fortress with double-storied gates on the northern and southern sides → entertain; enjoy(ment) (← scent/fragrance of offerings passing through to the gods or invited guests) → receive (← mirror image of entertain).
香 (9) コウ；かお（り・る）；こうば（しい） SIS 
SIS combines 黍 millet + 甘 (Type 2 Phonetic) sweet/good → good/sweet fragrance/scent of boiled millet wafting through the air → incense; perfume; savory (smell).
凝 (16) ギョウ；こ（らす・る）
As per 疑 (Type 2 Phonetic) (be stopped) + 氷 ice → expansive block of solid ice → rigidity; concentration; stiff. Strain, be absorbed in, fix attention on and elaborate (v.) are extended meanings.
肯 (8) コウ
The earliest form was written not with 止 stop but with 冖 cover. The addition of 肉 flesh suggested a container with meat stretching completely from bottom to top. The sense of "completeness" created the extended meanings consent and assent (← proposal to which one agrees completely).
恒 (9) コウ Formerly 恆
亙 (Type 1 Phonetic) cross over from one point to another + 心 heart/emotions → heart stretched from one point to another → constantly; always → fixed; make it a rule/habit to (← always).
興 (16) コウ；キョウ；おこ（す・る） SIS 
SIS combines 同 same (here suggesting "work together in the same manner") + 與 (Type 2 Phonetic) the previous form of 与 (two pairs of hands stretched in raising an object) → work together to raise, build or promote → interest; prosperity (← raise interest; build up funds). Prevalent is an extended meaning.
刑 (6) ケイ S/B  BIS 
S/B of the left-hand element is a pictograph of a square/rectangular frame (compare 井 and 丹. BIS curves the vertical strokes. 刑 adds 刀 sword/knife → punish (← punish by confinement, or by the blow of a sword).
型 (9) ケイ；かた
As per 刑 (Type 1 Phonetic) (confine) + 土 earth → stretch earth/clay throughout a frame in shaping it → mold; model → pattern; type; design; conventional form/idea; basic technique (in martial arts).
形 (7) ケイ；ギョウ；かた；かたち
The left-hand element (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 刑 (frame → form; shape) + 彡 pattern → (various) shapes and patterns → shape; pattern; form; style.
耕 (10) コウ；たがや（す） Alternate Form 畊
The left-hand element (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 刑 (frame → field partitioned into small plots) + 耒 plow → plow used to create long furrows in a field → till; cultivate.
幸 (8) コウ；さいわ（い）；さち；しあわ（せ） S/B 
S/B is a pictograph of handcuffs. Good fortune and happiness are mirror image meanings (← the good fortune to escape one's handcuffs).
敬 (12) ケイ；うやま（う） SIS 
SIS combines a person + horns + a mouth → person who cries out and goes stiff upon being charged by a ram. 敬 is 苟 + 攵 action indicator → be stiff/formal/ceremonious (compare 改) → respect. Distinguish the left-hand element from the independent character 苟.
警 (19) ケイ
As per 敬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stiff; upright) + 言 words → warn another to behave uprightly → regulate; alarm; careful.
驚 (22) キョウ；おどろ（かす・き・く）
As per 敬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stiff; upright) + 馬 horse → startled horse that stiffens in attention (compare 篤) → surprise; astonishment → fright; shock; wonder; marvel.
径 (8) ケイ Formerly 徑
巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) is 巛 (variant of 川) river between a horizontal line at top and 工 at bottom (originally 土 earth) → subterranean watercourse. 徑 adds 彳 movement → proceed along an extensive path → diameter; direct.
茎 (8) ケイ；くき Formerly 莖
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 艸 grass/plant → stalk; stem.
経 (11) ケイ；へ（る） Formerly 經
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 糸 thread → long, warp threads → longitude; pass through → (of time) pass/elapse. Sutra; reason and manage are from the idea of the thread of a discourse, while experience is via "pass through." Compare also 営.
軽 (12) ケイ；かる（い） Formerly 輕
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 車 vehicle → light(weight) vehicle that shuttles between two distant points → lessen/lighten; make light of.
杏 (7) キョウ；アン；あんず
口 mouth + 木 tree/wood → apricot (← fruit savored in the mouth). Compare 梅, a closely-related fruit thought to be beneficial for pregnant women on account of its voluminous production.
盈 (9) エイ
Variant of 乃 (soft and pendent object) + 皿 (Type 3 Phonetic) dish/plate/bowl → fill a dish with soft food → be/become full; satisfy.
羹 (19) コウ；カン；あつもの
As per 羔 (Type 5 Phonetic) (lamb placed in a cooking pot for boiling whole) and as per 美 (originally, a large, well-formed [and thereby tasty] sheep) → tasty, hot soup.
亨 (7) キョウ；コウ
A product of the same pictograph as 享 (castle or fortress with double-storied gates on the northern and southern sides allowing passage). Whereas 享 came to convey the extended meanings of entertainment and enjoyment, 亨 indicates smooth passage.
嬰 (17) エイ
貝 shell (doubled → shell necklace) + 女 woman → female wearing a shell necklace → encircle. Baby and (musical) sharp are borrowed meanings.
亘 (6) セン；コウ；とど（く）；めぐ（る）；わた（る）SIS 
The present form is a SCR simplification of SIS, which suggests a circular area of land set apart from other land → go about. The apparently related meanings cross over from one point to another, range, and extend over are in fact borrowed meanings (via 亙).
亙 (6) コウ
Depiction of a crescent moon between two horizontal lines → cross over from one point to another → extend across/over; range (about). Some dictionaries list 亙 as an alternate form of 亘, but they are separate characters.
畺 (13) キョウ
田 field/paddy (doubled) bounded and partitioned by three horizontal lines → tightly demarcated fields → boundary; border.
彊 (16) キョウ
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 弓 bow → tautly stretched bow → strong → strengthen.
竟 (11) キョウ；ケイ；つい（に） SIS 
SIS combines a human figure + 音 (Type 2 Phonetic) sound → singer reaching the end of a long piece of music → come to an end → finally; at last.
亢 (4) コウ SIS 
SIS combines an abbreviated form of 大 person standing outstretched + two vertical lines indicating a stretching neck → the throat → raise (the head upright); proud; arrogant; high.
杭 (8) コウ；くい；わた（る）
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 木 tree/wood → wooden stake thrust into the earth and stretching upward. Proceed (over water) is a borrowed meaning.
卿 (10) キョウ；ケイ BIS 
BIS is 即 (Type 5 Phonetic) (kneeling person immediately beside a table piled high with food) + an additional person on the other side of the table → face/be opposed at a distance. 卿 was originally used with exclusive reference to elder members of families who were permitted to eat in front of an altar. However, over time it came to designate the rank of an aristocrat → minister; head of a government agency. You is via the use of the term by a ruler toward a subordinate. Lord is a borrowed meaning.
饗 (22) キョウ
As per 郷 (Type 1 Phonetic) (face each other through intervening space) + 食 food/eating → eat face to face → host (a banquet).
黥 (20) ケイ；ゲイ；いれずみ
As per 京 (Type 1 Phonetic) (expansive view → expansive) + 黑, the previous form of 黒 black → dark tattoo permanently marking a criminal's face.
桁 (10) コウ；けた；ころもかけ
As per 行 (Type 1 Phonetic) (crossroads → straight road → straight) + 木 tree/wood → beam; girder → rack for hanging kimono; abacus bar → digit/(numerical) placeholder.
秧 (10) オウ；なえ
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 禾 grain/rice → (rice) seedling stretching energetically skyward.
殃 (9) オウ
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 歹 severed bone/death → have one's limbs stretched in torture → calamity; misfortune.
馨 (20) ケイ；かお（り・る）
As per 殸 (Type 3 Phonetic) as described in 声 (suspended piece of slate used as a musical instrument + a hand holding a stick used to strike the slate and produce sound that enters straight into the ear) + 香 (Type 1 Phonetic) fragrance → fragrance that carries a long distance and enters the nostrils → fragrant; be fragrant.
荊 (9) ケイ；いばら
刑 (Type 1 Phonetic) punishment + 艸 grass/plant → thorn plant from which a whip is fashioned.
勁 (9) ケイ
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 力 power/energy → taut, unflagging strength → strong; tough.
逕 (11) ケイ；ただ（ちに）；みち
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 辵 movement → proceed along an extensive path (compare 径, which some sources consider an alternate form of 逕) → short-cut (← extensive path that directly connects two distant points). Also, at once (← immediate ← fastest route).
脛 (11) ケイ；すね；はぎ
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 肉 flesh → the shin (← portion of the leg extending from knee to ankle) → leg.
痙 (12) ケイ
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 疒 illness → condition characterized by protracted twitching or spasms → twitch; spasm → cramp; convulsive fit.
頸 (16) ケイ；くび Alternate Form 頚
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 頁 head → (long) neck connecting the head and torso → throat; head.
鴦 (16) オウ；おしどり
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 鳥 bird → female mandarin duck, with a stripe on both sides of the head that stretches from the eye to the back of the head. Compare 鴛.
瑛 (12) エイ
英 (Type 1 Phonetic) brilliance + 玉 jewel → sparkling jewel(ry). Also, a transparent jewel (such as crystal or quartz).
霙 (16) エイ；ヨウ；みぞれ
英 (Type 1 Phonetic) brilliance + 雨 rain/natural phenomena → blinding sleet.
倖 (10) コウ；さいわ（い）
As per 幸 (Type 1 Phonetic) (the good fortune to escape one's handcuffs) + 人 person → person who enjoys unexpected good fortune. Also, favor (← bestow good fortune on another person).
贏 (20) エイ；あま（る）；か（つ）
The element (Type 1 Phonetic) composed of 亡 (originally 彐 head of an animal), 口 mouth and 月/肉 flesh features the same combination of elements found in 厭 (fatty meat). 贏 adds 貝 commodities and 丮 a representation of objects caught or held in the hand → possess a surplus of objects → make a profit. Also, win (← possess surplus objects on account of having gained victory). In many fonts, however, the 丮 element is represented as 凡.
薑 (16) キョウ；コウ；はじかみ
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 艸 grass/plant → ginger (← plant with clearly demarcated rhizomes).
橿 (17) キョウ；かし
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 木 tree/wood → variety of oak the bark of which is cleanly demarcated.
憬 (15) キョウ；ケイ；あこが（れる）
As per 景 (Type 1 Phonetic) (expansive view on a sunny day) + 心 heart/emotions → long for something that is distant.
襁 (16) キョウ；むつき
As per 強 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch tautly) + 衣 clothing → cord stretched tautly about an infant carried on one's back → diaper (← cloth tied tightly about the groin).
昂 (8) コウ；ゴウ；あ（がる）；たかぶ（る）
As per 卬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (kneel and look up at → regard from a distance) + 日 sun/day → raise one's head to observe the sun → rise (high); look up. Also, haughty (← take a superior attitude) and tense (← rise high emotionally).
磬 (16) ケイ
As per 殸 (Type 3 Phonetic) as described in 声 (suspended piece of slate used as a musical instrument + a hand holding a stick used to strike the slate and produce sound) + 石 stone → percussion instrument consisting of a row of suspended stones.
謦 (18) ケイ；しわぶき
As per 殸 (Type 3 Phonetic) as described in 声 (suspended piece of slate used as a musical instrument + a hand holding a stick used to strike the slate and produce sound) + 言 (Type 1 Phonetic) words → speak at length in a resonant voice. Cough and clear the throat are borrowed meanings.
癭 (22) エイ
嬰 (Type 1 Phonetic) encircle + 疒 illness → swelling about the neck.
瓔 (21) エイ；ヨウ Alternate Form 珱
嬰 (Type 1 Phonetic) encircle + 玉 jewel → necklace composed of precious stones.
伉 (6) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 人 person → stand (← stand upright in courageous opposition); take direct action against an opponent. Also, partner/opponent of equal strength.
吭 (7) コウ；のど
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (the throat) + 口 mouth → throat; windpipe. 吭 was devised to replace 亢 after the latter took on its extended meanings.
頏 (13) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 頁 head → bird alighting (from directly overhead). (Human) throat is via a separate term applied to 頏; compare 吭.
怏 (8) オウ；ヨウ
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 心 heart/emotions → dissatisfaction (← be unable to stretch in adapting to circumstances) → grudge.
泱 (8) オウ
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 水 water → swell up; billow. Stagnant and collected water are via a separate term applied to 泱.
鞅 (14) オウ；ヨウ；むながい
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 革 leather → leather strap (stretching from a horse's breast to its saddle, or binding its midsection) → be pressured.
僵 (15) キョウ；たお（れる）
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 人 person → stiffening of a human body.
疆 (19) キョウ；さかい
彊 (Type 1 Phonetic) strong + 土 earth → a long, fortified border/boundary.
兢 (14) キョウ
As per 克 (Type 2 Phonetic) (person stretched taut while bearing a weighty object) (doubled) → go tense with fear and be watchful/discreet.
剄 (9) ケイ；くびき（る）
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 刀 sword/knife → slit a throat, making an extensive incision.
勍 (10) ケイ；つよ（い）
As per 京 (Type 1 Phonetic) (expansive view → expansive) + 力 power/energy → strong (in the sense of being stretched tautly; compare 強).
嚮 (19) キョウ；コウ；さき；む（かう）
鄕 (Type 1 Phonetic) the previous form of 郷 (face each other through intervening space) + 向 advance upon → head off/out to engage a distant opponent. Also, be (in the) past (← head off/out, leaving one's home behind).
檠 (16) ケイ；ゆだめ
As per 敬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stiff; upright) + 木 tree/wood → tool/frame for straightening a bow (by pulling tightly on either end).
嬴 (16) エイ
Abbreviated form (Type 8 Phonetic) of 贏 (fatty meat → ampleness; surplus) + 女 woman → a famous surname in Chinese history, first applied by the emperor of the time to a renowned trainer of wild animals. (Regarding the relationship between the character 女 and surnames, compare 姓). Abundance, surplus and win are borrowed meaning, via 贏.
瀛 (19) エイ
As per 嬴 (Type 1 Phonetic) (abundance → extend widely) + 水 water → (vast) ocean.
籝 (26) エイ
As per 嬴 (Type 1 Phonetic) (abundance → extend widely) + 竹 bamboo → large, bamboo box.
絎 (12) コウ；く（ける）；ぬ（う）
As per 行 (Type 1 Phonetic) (crossroads → straight road → straight) + 糸 thread → straight edge (of the hem of a garment etc.); sew (in a straight line). The verb くける refers specifically to make a blind stitch (sew in a manner that the threads are hidden from view).
纓 (23) エイ；ヨウ；ひも
嬰 (Type 1 Phonetic) encircle + 糸 thread → crown strings (running down each side of the head, and tied beneath the jaw); tie crown strings. Also, a string worn by women as a sign of betrothal, as well as a decoration attached to the back of a crown.
耿 (10) コウ
火 fire + 耳 ear → hear clearly (← see clearly ← brilliant fire) → clear → bright.
螯 (17) ゴウ
As per 敖 (Type 5 Phonetic) (ramble) + 虫 insect/creature → (crab's) claw (← large claw that stretches wide ← stretch wide ← ramble). Compare 蟹.
盎 (10) オウ；あふ（れる）
As per 央 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch) + 皿 dish/plate/bowl → small-mouthed, wide-bellied pot → abundant (← abundant capacity) → overflowing.
曏 (17) キョウ；さき（に）
Variant form (Type 1 Phonetic) of 郷 (face each other through intervening space) + 日 sun/day → a previous day; once (upon a time) (← one day figuratively facing another through intervening time).
蠁 (19) キョウ；コウ
Variant form (Type 1 Phonetic) of 郷 (face each other through intervening space) + 虫 insect → pupa; chrysalis (faced over space and time by the adult insect after it emerges).
殭 (17) キョウ；たお（れる）
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 歹 severed bone/death → die and go stiff; rigor mortis.
韁 (20) キョウ；きずな
As per 畺 (Type 1 Phonetic) (tightly demarcated → tight; taut) + 革 leather → leather drawn tautly against a horse or beast of burden → reins; bridle.
卬 (4) ギョウ；ゴウ；あお（ぐ） SIS 
SIS shows a kneeling person at the right and a standing figure at the left → look up at one of superior social rank → high.
陘 (10) ケイ；ギョウ
As per 巠 (Type 1 Phonetic) as described in 径 (extensive) + 阜 piled earth → long gorge/mountain pass.
鉶 (14) ケイ；ギョウ
As per 刑 (Type 1 Phonetic) (confine) + 金 metal → a lidded, tripod vessel in which offerings were contained.
儆 (14) ケイ；いまし（める）
As per 敬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stiff; upright) + 人 person → admonish; warn (← make another taut/stiff in admonishing; compare 戒).
擎 (16) ケイ；ささ（げる）
As per 敬 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stiff; upright) + 手 hand/action indicator → raise an object, stretching one's arms as high as they will go → raise high with both hands.
罄 (17) ケイ；つ（きる）；むな（しい）
As per 殸 (Type 3 Phonetic) as described in 声 (suspended piece of slate used as a musical instrument + a hand holding a stick used to strike the slate and produce sound that enters straight into the ear) + 缶 bulging earthenware jug/vase → empty container (← which when struck produces the same hollow sound as the 殸 instrument) → empty; run out of.
沆 (7) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 水 water → long stretch of water. Also, in a vertical application of the same idea, a tall jet/spray of water.
阬 (7) コウ
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 阜 piled earth → hole/shaft running straight down a mound of earth.
炕 (8) コウ；あぶ（る）
As per 亢 (Type 1 Phonetic) (stretch straight) + 火 fire → stretch objects straight over a fire for drying → dry by fire → bake.
珩 (10) コウ；ギョウ
行 (Type 1 Phonetic) (crossroads → cross) + 玉 jewel → a horizontally aligned jewel at the top of a vertical string of jewels hung from the waist.
璜 (16) コウ
As per the previous form of 黄 (Type 4 Phonetic) (flaming arrowhead extending through space) + 玉 jewel → light reflected from a jewel and extending a great distance (a meaning retained in the compound 璜璜). However, 璜 came also to refer to a particular type of jeweled ornament used as a waistband accessory (specifically, a disk-shaped precious stone [璧] cut in half).
緪 (15) コウ
恆 (Type 1 Phonetic) the previous form of 恒 fixed + 糸 thread → rope stretched taut to fix an object in place → stretch taut; large rope.
蘅 (19) コウ
As per 衡 (Type 1 Phonetic) (a bar) + 艸 grass/plant → a long, straight plant. The compound 杜蘅 refers to Pollia japonica.
荇 (9) コウ；あさざ
行 (Type 1 Phonetic) crossroads + 艸 grass/plant → Nymphoides peltata, also known as yellow floating heart (← water plant the stalk and flower of which cross at the waterline).
鴴 (17) ギョウ；コウ；ちどり
行 (Type 1 Phonetic) line + 鳥 bird → plover (← bird which lines up in great numbers at the shoreline). Compare 鵆.
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Etymological Keypoints
This column of keypoints appears on each page of this online etymological dictionary of kanji, Chinese characters as used in Japan. For detailed information on any of the following topics, click the MORE hyperlinks to reach the appropriate sections of the Reference Page.
Types of Characters
Chinese characters are of three types: pictographs, ideographs and compound characters.
Pictographs
Pictographs are representations of concrete objects: moon, sun, river, mountain, bird, sword, mouth, hand and so on. Pictographs also account for nearly all of the radicals (or classifiers) as described below in the Compound Characters section. There are several hundred pictographs in all. MORE
Ideographs
The handful of ideographs among the Chinese characters convey abstract notions such as unity, concealment, extension etc. MORE
Compound Characters
Compound Characters are composed of two elements. The first element is a "radical" (or "classifier"). Character dictionaries assign nearly all characters to one of approximately 70 of these radicals.
The second element is a sound note, suggesting both the pronunciation and the meaning of the character. In a small number of compound characters the sound conveyed by the second element is anomalous, for which reason compound characters have traditionally been divided into phonetic compounds and semantic compounds.
MORE on Phonetic Compounds
MORE on Semantic Compounds
Phonetic elements (or sound notes) most often match that of the compound character precisely, such as 夬 KUAT and 決 KUAT. In other instances the initial or final consonants are altered: 甚 TAM and 勘 KAM; 胥 SAG and 婿 SAR. In a smaller number of cases the vowel is transposed: 而 NAG and 需 NUG. We also find phonetic elements functioning in other ways such as to convey onomatopoeic or mimetic sounds, to transliterate loan words and so on. There are eight types of sound notes in all. MORE
Word Formation In Proto-Chinese
This dictionary arranges Chinese characters according to word families of phonologically and semantically related terms. Building upon research undertaken by Bernhard Karlgren and Akiyasu Todo, the earliest sounds of the terms in proto-Chinese are reconstructed along the pattern Consonant-Vowel-Consonant. MORE
Initial consonants are K, L, M, N, P, S and T. The vowel in most terms is something between short A and E, here rendered as A. The vowel may also be O or U, and a number of word families feature the medial glide UA. Final consonants are G/K, NG, M, N, P, R and T.
Semantic Function of Consonants
Each initial consonant suggests a broad semantic background for characters beginning with that consonant. Here are the semantic indicators for each initial consonant, followed by a partial selection of the kinds of terms found in each initial consonant network.
Initial K- = Frame: boxes and containers; foundations of buildings; cavities; enclosed passageways; shackles/handcuffs; square tools; crossroads; humans, gates and other objects framing each other by standing in opposition; nuts in shells, grain in husks, beans/peas in a pod, shellfish in shells and other objects in containers; yokes; molds; footwear and garments that contain the body in full or part
Initial L- = Continuum: footpaths; literal and figurative belts; strips of material; stripes; dripping, flowing or trickling water/liquid; linked waves; patterned grain of wood; chains/cables; lengths of rope; interwoven vegetation; furrows; stretching vines
Initial M- = Conceal: the sun concealed (by darkness, cloud cover, vegetation); threads, insects, and heads of grain that are fine/tiny to the point of near-invisibility; persons concealed by passing away; fish nets or traps concealed beneath the surface of the water; physical/figurative blindness; concealing grass/vegetation; concealing curtains or pieces of cloth
Initial N- = Flexible: supple female bodies; supple body parts (ears, earlobes, droopy beard); vegetation/food softened/made supple by being heated; cloth/fabric softened in liquid; bodies wasted/softened by illness; swordblades and other flexible weapons; clinginess; seals created from softened clay; pliable hides; vines and other flexible objects that coil/twist about; gently bending arms and vegetation
Initial P- = Spread: goods spread for display/sale; food spread for a feast/meal; spreading leaves/vegetation; liquid/fragrance that spreads to right and left, or in all directions; liquid overflowing its container; hands spread to slap/strike, or to grip a handle; spreading wounds; spreading tiles; lightning spreading through the sky; waterplants spreading over the surface of water; sails and other types of spreading cloth; seeds spread through fields; pelts/fabric wrapped about the body; wings wrapped around a bird's body; sea creatures enveloped in shells; objects such as fabric or soft boards that spread in being folded back upon themselves
Initial S- = Small/Thin/Slender: piles of vegetation, plant matter, grain, food etc; piled rocks; piled earth; pile of wood shavings; objects that are cut/aligned irregularly; long or tall, slender objects such as masts, reeds, wells or fences; hairpins, phalluses, trails of liquid and other slender objects that penetrate tight spaces; fragments of metal, wood or bone; moss, coral, baby teeth and other small, tightly adhering objects; arrangements of small/fine objects such as thorns on a plant, birds in trees or sand on a beach; sheaves, wheel spokes converging in hubs, arrows compacted in a quiver and other tightly compressed objects
Initial T- = Straight: literal piles of objects such as firewood, meat, valuables or metal; figurative piles; lizards, snakes, wriggling insects and other straight creatures; the shuttle of a loom, a horizontal bar on a vehicle and other machines/machine parts that move in a straight line; straight movement in both vertical and horizontal directions; pipes, tubes, caverns and other straight, tubular objects; flames, gas, the sun and other rising objects
(Initial S terms represent a branch of the initial T group, emphasizing small/thin/slender applications of the idea of straightness.) MORE
Among the final consonants, the G/K ending suggests that the meaning of the character is directly connected with the main idea expressed by the initial consonant (see above). KAG/LAG/MAG/NAG/PAG/SAG/TAG and their final K variants KAK/LAK/MAK/NAK/PAK/SAK/TAK may be considered linguistic templates which the other finals modify to create more specific meanings for the relevant terms. Each of the remaining final consonants suggests a specific semantic nuance for the characters ending with that consonant. Here are the semantic indicators for each final consonant, followed by a partial selection of the kinds of terms found in each final consonant group.
Final -NG = Extend: bodies that stretch and/or go stiff; persons or objects standing in distant opposition; sound/fragrance drifting from one point to another, linking the two points in distant opposition; actions or processes that continue a long time, such as savoring food in the mouth, protracted spasms, lengthy songs or dramatic performances; endlessly flowing water; vegetation spreading out of sight; long strings of shells/jewels; writing/ornamentation spread at length over a surface; tall piles or long trails of objects; steam, vapor or gas that rises high in the air
Final -M = Encompass: people fallen into holes; food or other objects contained in the mouth; fruit encompassed by skin; grain encompassed by husks; objects covered by thick vegetation or by darkness; drenched objects; a fetus encompassed in a womb; needles, hairpins and other slender objects concealed in filling narrow spaces; cavities and containers filled with liquid
Final -N = Adhere/Be proximate: weapons contacting an enemy's body; contact of body parts with other objects; hunting/fishing implements contacting their targets; tightly knit groups of people, birds, fish and other creatures; tight rows of like objects; cloth tightly wrapped about (parts of) the body; roofs fit upon buildings; paired objects in close proximity; points of contact between land and water; proximate pieces of finely cut/chopped objects such as vegetation and food; objects lying flat on the ground
Final -P = Press: be pressed upon by attackers; objects sandwiched between others; objects exerting pressure downward, or directly upon the ground; tight compaction of like objects such as threads, insects or vegetation; human bodies pressing upon bedding or upon other human bodies
Final -R = Continuum: elongated objects such as garments or weapons; prolonged activity such as speech, prayer, singing, rituals, irrigation, erosion, carving, scraping, polishing or sharpening of knives; prolonged sensations such as reverberations, irritation or illness; continuous states or relationships such as human friendship, reverence of ancestors or the lasting effect of glue-like substances; neat lines of people or of objects such as eaves, fruit or footprints; abstract elongation such as in the slow passage of time
Final -T = Cut/Divide/Reduce: reduction in size by cutting of vegetation, carving of wood, or biting/chewing of food; division of objects such as in the splitting of logs or the ripping of cloth; reduction of empty space in objects such as rooms and containers, or in the covering of open space by vegetation or water; reduction in length such as in knotting a rope; reduction of darkness by the application of light; reduction of physical capacities on account of fatigue, illness, blindness or numbness; reduction of physical capacities of animals by trapping, tethering or penning them; reduction of emotional capacities on account of anger, distress or excitement MORE
Semantic Function of the O and U Vowels
The vowel O suggests the idea of curvature, sometimes extending to "curve and surround/envelop."The U vowel, when it is the lone vowel in a term (examples: KUG, LUG, SUG, TUNG) refers to a circle (whether full or nearly full) or to a bulky/lumpy mass. However, when the U vowel is employed as part of the diphthong UA (examples: KUAN/KUAR/KUAT, SUAN/SUAR/SUAT), the signification is most often the O vowel sense of curving/round.
Here are the semantic indicators for these vowels, followed by a partial selection of representative terms.
Vowel O = Curvature: backs bent with illness or age; tree branches or the necks of humans/animals bent with weight; contorted bodies; trees bent with decay; arched bridges; curved stretches of land or other natural phenomena such as caverns; winding constructions such as palaces and official buildings; birds or the sun curving into sight over the horizon; coiling vegetation, snakes or threads; curved movement such as in kneading or bending objects into shape, sweeping with a broom, or rowing a boat; bulging objects such as water jugs, gourds, pimples or pregnant bellies; curved objects such as eggs, nuts or colanders; objects with curved portions such as a swordblade, the hull of a boat, or a flag attached to a pole and flapping in the breeze; arcs formed by liquid poured from a container, or by humans/animals moving in a semi-circle
Vowel U = Circle/Mass: round objects such as baskets, huts or circular buildings; lumpy objects such as heads, hunched bodies, breasts; skin protuberances or tree stumps; massive objects such as pillars, ridgepoles, downed boars or heavy bells; crowds of people or swarms of insects/creatures; curved objects such as earthenware, roofs or animal horns; round cavities filled with fluid or occupied by bodies; circuitous trails, winding hills and other curved landscape features; masses of hair such as in topknots or shaggy dog fur; masses of grain/vegetation; heaps of food; tightly-massed inanimate objects such as ships in a harbor, spokes in a hub or precious stones in an accessory; objects compacted by hand or tightly grasped in the fist
Vowel UA = Curving/Round: melons; wings; hoops; baskets; round and tubular containers; pools of water; objects enclosed in the hands; crowns; arcs or halos of light; circular piles of vegetation; round fruit; barrels; revolving objects and other forms of rotating/circular movement; rounded mountain tops or hill peaks; round bundles of goods or of vegetation; curling of the fingertips or cupping of the hands; strips of cloth wrapped about and covering the eyes; bound objects such as scrolls and tablets; round fish eggs; blossoming buds; cylindrical tubes, skewers or blocks; puckering of the lips; persons or objects arranged in a circle; squatting figures; winding waterways or passages; round holes and tools for drilling round holes MORE
Sample Terms
Semantically related terms are by no means restricted to a single consonant network. Five kanji concerned with the humble pea or bean and their seed vessels (the pod) suggest why and how this is.
The KAP word family (Frame + Press) contains the character 莢, meaning "pod." Here, the twin sides of the seed vessel are visualized as framing elements that press against the peas or beans contained within.
In the KUAN word family (Frame + [Curving/Round] + Adhere/Be Proximate) we find 豌 ("pea"), referring to the round legumes contained in and adhering to the framing element, the pod.
The NAM word family (Flexible + Encompass/Conceal) has 荏 "beans," that is, beans covered and hidden by a flexible pod.
荅 "bean pod" belongs to the TAP word family (Straight + Press). Here, the emphasis is on the pod as a straight object the sides of which exert pressure upon the contents.
Finally, 荳 "bean" is a member of the TUG word family (Straight + Circle/Mass + Straight). In this case, the emphasis is on the round or lumpy shape of the bean contained in the straight object, the pod. MORE
Using the Dictionary
Hyperlinks to individual word families are located at the left side of this page. To look up individual characters, use the search box at top right or one of the four indices at the located at the top center of the page.
For ease of reference, characters presented within an etymology are hyperlinked to their full etymological explanation.
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Site Contents Copyright (C) 2004-2008 Lawrence J. Howell
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